How to Structure Academic Writing

To access a PDF copy of this blog post and other articles, visit my Academia.edu page. 

Introduction

In academic settings, writing is the most fundamental method for sharing knowledge. This is true for scholars who share their work through peer-reviewed journals, and it is also true for students writing in learning settings. However, many students (and even scholars) often fail to provide coherent structure to their academic writing. This is a problem because using an appropriate structure allows the writer to express ideas more effectively. In addition, using appropriate structure aids the reader in understanding what is written more easily. As an instructor of graduate courses at several universities, I have found that many of my students have benefited from guidance on how to structure their papers; therefore, in this post, I will share a useful, basic reasoning structure for writing academic papers. I will also share how to structure academic papers using this thought structure. I will then provide a set of tips for making a paper more structured and more readable. Finally, I will share examples of how I have used this structure. 

The Basic Reasoning Structure for Academic Writing

In my experience, the basic reasoning structure for academic writing has three basic components. (1) A general description of the context or situation being discussed. This orients the reader to the topic of the paper and helps the writer focus on that context while writing. (2) A description of the problem or need being discussed. This helps the reader understand why the paper is relevant or useful and helps the writer keep focused on the specific needs. (3) A description of the solutions that are being proposed or reported. This provides the reader with something that they might use or apply themselves. The image below summarizes this basic reasoning structure.

Structuring Academic Papers

The basic reasoning structure described above should be used as part of a coherently structured academic paper. An academic paper typically has five main sections:

1. The Abstract summarizes the entire paper in one paragraph. These abstracts are typically somewhere between 150 and 500 words and are not included in the main body of the paper. Student papers often do not require an abstract.
2. The Introduction introduces the topic being discussed, briefly describes the problem that is being addressed and previews the solutions being discussed or described in the body of the paper.
3. The Body of the paper discusses in detail the problem being discussed, as well as the solution being proposed or presented. If research was performed, this section includes a description of the methods, procedures, and results of the research. The body of the paper can include several sub-sections.
4. The Discussion attempts to interpret the findings the paper or of the research and discusses their significance and/or meaning.
5. The Conclusion summarizes the paper and provides recommendations for future actions and research.

***Here is an important point: The reasoning structure described above (context, problem, solution) should be followed in the abstract, in the introduction, in the body of the paper, and in the conclusion. The reader needs to have continuity between each section of the paper, and using this same structure will provide that continuity. Applying this kind of structure should also help the writer stay focused on the key issues of the paper.

A Note on Evidence and Critical Thinking
Good academic writing is based on evidence. This evidence can come in many forms - research, well-document experiences, or verifiable information are all good sources of evidence. Not only should the assertions in an academic paper be based on evidence, but the reasoning should be clear and reflect critical thinking. With both of these elements in place, an academic paper has a strong foundation and the structure of the paper becomes more clear.

Tips for Making a Paper Readable

In my experience, using the following tips can make an academic paper more readable and well-structured. I try to follow these tips when writing my own papers and blog posts.

• Use headings and sub-headings - this provides further structure to text and orients the learner to what is being discussed.
• Share figures and images - well-designed images can clarify important points and help to summarize what is being discussed in the article.
• Use tables to organize complex information - well-designed tables can summarize complex information effectively and help learners see the relationships between concepts being discussed.
• Use bullet lists to summarize key points - bullet lists of key concepts can help learners to organize what they are learning more effectively.
• Use bold or italicized text to further organize and structure the text. This helps learners to focus on what is important in the paper and can help students further mentally organize what they are reading.

Examples of Structure in Academic Papers

Example 1 - This Blog Post

The first example of structure in academic writing is this blog post. If you look back at this post, you will see that I have attempted to apply the strategies and tips I describe in the post. Here is how:

1. The Reasoning Structure - In this blog post, I've tried to follow the basic reasoning structure.
1. Context or Situation- In the introduction, I describe how academic writing is a fundamental way that we share knowledge in an academic environment.
2. Problem or Need - In the introduction, I describe the how students (and some scholars) often have a hard time structuring their papers effectively.
3. Solution - In the introduction, I previewed how I would provide structures that students can use in their writing. Then in the body of the paper, I provide several tools a student might use to structure their papers effectively.
2. Structuring the Blog Post -  In this blog post, I also follow the basic structure of an academic paper, though I did not provide an abstract.
1. Introduction - I described the context or situation (writing in academic settings), share a specific problem (students struggling with structuring their papers) and preview how my blog post might provide solutions to that problem (giving a reasoning structure and a paper structure). 
2. The Body of the blog post - In this section, I share my solutions to the problems identified in the introduction. You will note that I didn't reiterate or expand on the context or the problem- this is often done in academic papers but for the purposes of this blog post, I keep it succinct. 
3. The Summary of the blog post - In this section, I summarize the situation, the problem or need,and the solutions I am proposing.
3. Using the Tips - In this blog post, I also attempt to use the tips that I described above. I used italics and bold text, provided an organizing image, used bullet lists to summarize concepts, and use headings and sub-headings to structure the paper. 

More Examples

Below I link to some of the articles and academic papers I have written in the past. These articles should serve as examples of the strategies described above. I begin with a simple example and move to more complex examples to show the variety of ways these structures can be used.

• Article: Applying Merrill's First Principles of Instruction - This article describes how to easily apply some foundational principles of instruction. The article follows most or all of the structure strategies described in this paper.
• Article: A Conceptual Framework for Organizing Active Learning Experiences in Biology Instruction - This article is much more complex, but it again demonstrates the strategies discussed in this paper.
• Dissertation: Testing the Efficacy of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction in Improving Student Performance in Introductory Biology Courses. This very large publication uses the same strategies discussed in this blog post. It is fairly complex but still follows the basic structures.

Summary
Because academic writing is crucial in an academic setting, it is vital that students can understand and apply basic strategies for structuring their academic writing. I have found that using the strategies above for structuring the reasoning of a paper, structuring the paper itself, and using strategies for making the paper more readable can help students create papers that are more organized and readable. I've provided examples that students can review to see how the structures can be applied in meaningful ways. In further posts, I plan to provide a general template that students can download and use in their academic writing.

What is a "Principle of Instruction?"

In the world of instructional design, we often talk about principles of instruction, (sometimes called principles of instructional design) but it can be difficult to clearly explain what these principles are and how they can be used effectively. In this post I will share some ideas on what they are and how they can and should be used.

Defining Instructional Principles
Let's start by defining each word individually. "Instructional" is related to instruction, which an online dictionary defines as "the practice of instructing... imparting knowledge." This same online dictionary defines a principle as "A rule or law concerning the functioning of natural phenomena or mechanical processes." Merrill (2002) defines a principle as "a relationship that is true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice" (p. 43).

If-Then
The above definitions can be somewhat confusing, so one easy way to look at principles is to think of them as If-Then statements which describe an underlying law or rule that governs how the natural world functions. In an instructional setting, this means that there are natural laws or rules of learning that can be utilized to facilitate and increase learning. We use these natural laws by employing instructional strategies based on the natural principle. When we apply principles to an instructional setting, we can use the following line of thinking:

If the conditions are X, and you do Y (Y = an instructional strategy that is based on a known instructional principle), Then Z will be more likely occur (Z = the specific outcome).


Here is an example:

If your goal is to have learners learn how to perform a complex cognitive task (X, conditions), and you provide them with real-world "worked" examples of that task being accomplished (Y, instructional strategy based on demonstration principle of instruction), then the learners will be able to solve the complex cognitive task sooner and more effectively than if you didn't provide the examples (Z, outcome).

Instructional principles are probabilistic
It should be noted that these principles are probabilistic in nature, which means that using these principles will make it more likely that student learning will increase. There are many other factors such as student attention and motivation that heavily influence student learning.

Who creates instructional principles?
Instructional principles describe an underlying law or rule that governs how we learn, so technically they are discovered instead of invented. Often these principles are identified through research done at universities. These principles can also be discovered through the practical experience of conscientious instructional designers. No matter where they are discovered, the application of a true principle will always increase student learning if used appropriately.

What are some fundamental principles of instruction?
So, what are some known principles of instruction? Perhaps the most comprehensive compilation of fundamental instructional principles is Merrill's First Principles of Instruction. You can learn more about these principles by accessing the documents below:

• Applying Merrill's First Principles of Instruction (an article I published a few years ago - provides basic instructions on how to use the principles effectively)
• First Principles of Instruction (Dr. Merrill's original publication - describes how the principles were discovered)
• How Award Wining Instructors Use Merrill's First Principles of Instruction (another article that demonstrates how these principles can be used effectively)
• Dr. Merrill's published papers on First Principles (A Web page with many outstanding articles and resources)

Instructional principles are absolutely vital because they help new instructional designers avoid common errors by applying known strategies to their work. Knowing and applying these (and other) principles will inevitably produce more efficient, effective, and engaging learning experiences for our learners.

How to Stop Being a Jerk

I find that I spend a lot of time analyzing people. I just can't help it - I am a scholar and a researcher, and it spills over into how I observe the people around me. For some reason, I am fascinated by the behaviors of the absolute jerks of the world. You know who these people are - they can be rude, unpleasant, demeaning, and arrogant. (You can read my analysis of one category of jerks in my post about Toxic Coworkers).  Here is one definition of a jerk:

\ˈjərk\ - an unlikable person; especially : one who is cruel, rude, or small-minded

What is amazing about so many of these jerks is that they usually do not realize that often their own jerky behavior actually limits their ability to succeed. It is true that an individual might find some short-term success through the use of manipulative, toxic actions; however, over the long-term, that individual will reap the negative results of their negative actions. Here are some of my own observations of toxic (jerky) behaviors with the corollary healthy behaviors in a work environment:

Toxic and Healthy Behaviors

Toxic Behaviors (in coworkers)	Healthy Behaviors
Constantly critique others Complain daily about work situations Gossip about and slander other coworkers Find fault with everything others do Constantly angry, use foul language Lie about others	Share constructive, formative feedback. Focus attention and communications on what can proactively be accomplished Speak positively of others (when deserved) Facilitate success in others Control anger and use professional language Speak truthfully and kindly of others

Character is the Foundation of Behavior
Somewhere beneath behaviors lies the character of the individual doing the actions. One must pause to consider what a jerk believes about themselves and others. What are their assumptions about life? How do they perceive their roles in life, in their families, and in the workplace? What do they believe will bring them happiness and success in life? What principles do they allow to guide their actions? Are they even aware of their own beliefs and assumptions about life? Perhaps being a jerk is simply a result of having very little self-awareness, an inability (or a lack of desire) to look honestly in the mirror and acknowledge what is found.
 

Unhealthy Character	Healthy Character
Appearance/possession-focused Selfish Gratification-focused Focused on short-term Careless attitude toward of resources Abusive toward others	Character-focused Giving, serving Self-restraint, delayed gratification Focused on long-term Respect and judicious use of resources Respect of and service to others

Change Character Through the Power of Beliefs
If character is the foundation upon which our actions are built, how might we build our character? To change our character, we must change our perceptions, or beliefs about the world and about others. I have found that beliefs that are (1) true and (2) empowering yield the greatest shifts in character and therefore action. Understanding and believing these principles provides a great deal of personal power. I've outlined a few below. Notice the sequential nature of these principles - each principle leads to the following principle.

Empowering, Healthy Beliefs:

1. My actions have results. This is often called the law of the harvest - whatever you sow, that is what you will reap. One verse of scripture reads "That which ye do send out shall return unto you again." This is true in every aspect of our lives, including our relationships with others, and understanding and believing this principle can provide a fundamental shift in how reality is perceived.
2. I have the power to choose my actions. Our "free will" or our ability to choose our behavior is like a muscle - we can exercise it to increase and control our capacity to choose our actions. We have the capacity to respond to our circumstances in ways that yield positive results. The famous quote states, "The problem is not the issue, the issues is how you deal with the problem." Unfortunately, this means that we cannot continually blame others for our actions.
3. I have the power to choose the direction of my life. We have the ability to clearly identify and articulate what we desire in our lives - what we want to know, do, become, or have. We can set a direction for our lives. This belief can be enacted through the process of goal setting, which I describe in this blog post.
4. I can move my life in the direction I desire through purposeful action. This is really a combination of the previous three beliefs. We have the ability to live a life of purpose, and it is by setting goals, selecting actions that will help reach those goals, and doing those actions that we move in a purposeful direction.
5. I have the ability to positively influence and benefit people around me. This belief is a natural extension of the previous four. I have found that working to positively influence and bless the people around me has brought me significant intrinsic awards. In addition, sending out positive energy and actions to others will inevitably yield a return of positive energy and actions. It is through healthy interactions with others that our success becomes most fulfilling.

Applying to Education

So, how does this relate to instructional design and education? I believe that people are infinitely more empowered when they learn principles of this nature. In education, we tend to focus our attention on surface-level learning - knowing facts, solving problems, gaining skills - and we ignore the foundation on which all human behavior resides: our beliefs and our character.

I also believe that true educators already embody many of these beliefs. They dedicate their lives to positively influencing others.

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What reactions do you have? Do I oversimplify the issue? Do jerks just need to change what they believe about life to become less jerky? Your comments are welcome...