Leadership Development: Leadership Theories and Decision-Making

This post is part of a series on leadership development.

As noted in a previous post, I have been attending leadership development presentations on a monthly basis at Franklin University. Today we heard from Dr. Timothy Reymann, the Chair of the Business Administration, Management and Applied Management Programs at Franklin. Below are my notes on his topics of discussion, as well as some reflections.

What is leadership? 

A leader has the ability to influence others. It isn’t directly linked to a position within an organization. Simply sharing ideas with others can have a great impact on others and on an organization. Leadership also includes helping move others toward a specific or shared common goal. Importantly, great leaders start off as great followers. Dr. Reymann shared an example of Dr. Tom Seiler, the Dean of the College of Business at Franklin, who exemplified followership at many levels as he progressed in his career.

Leadership Styles

Dr. Reymann outlined some of the major theories of leadership being discussed today. I'll give a brief outline of these below.

• Transformational Leadership – transformational leaders focus on helping the people they lead to change and improve. They do the following:
• Build Trust – Work hard and pull through for your people.
• Act with Integrity – Work hard, stick up for your people, own your mistakes.
• Inspire Others – Show what is possible. Encourage the growth mindset.
• Encourage Innovative Thinking – Model and reward creative thinking.
• Coach Individuals – work with specific people individually to help them move forward
• Authentic Leadership – The focus here is leadership that is transparent, ethical, and worthy of the trust of the followers. Apparently the Millennial generation wants leaders who are transparent and trustworthy.
• Transactional Leadership - this is typically seen as less-effective, today. I see this as a remnant of past societal needs - in the industrial society, this kind of management style was probably important, but in our current society, people need to be able to do their work without constraint. Transactional leadership tends to employ micro management strategies wherein they are "all up in their employees' bidness" and don't allow them to move forward with faith and confidence.
• Servant Leadership – The servant leader’s goal is to develop others and not to develop his or her own interest. Listening, empathy, and foresight are key skills. It is based on principles of Christianity – the leader is there to develop others and have them carry on as leaders.
• Full Range Leadership – This model seems to show the big picture and help leaders move from totally apathetic to passive, to transactional, to transformational. Transformational seems to be the best fit for the knowledge society, according to this model. I tend to agree, though I might mix in a little servant leadership (as they appear to be very similar). 

“A leader is best when people barely know he exists. Of a good leader, who talks little, when his work is done, his aim is fulfilled, his followers will say “We did it ourselves.” Lao-tsu

Decision-making in Leadership

Reymann identified 8 steps for decision-making. These align well with the “scientific” or “analytical” approach to decision-making. Very often we are making split-decisions instead of using critical thinking approaches. The main thing is to take enough time to make the right decisions.

1. Identify relevant facts – gather solid data.
2. Identify ethical issues for the decision – make sure you take care of your ethical obligation.
3. Identify stakeholders – who will be affected by the decisions? How?
4. Identify possible consequences and alternatives – predict what will happen when decisions are made and actions taken
5. Think long-term – how does this decision affect our people and our organization in the long-term? Come up with a 3-5 year plan for increasing your successes.
6. Identify relevant obligations – what are you obligated to do? What if your decision was published in the newspaper? Would you be comfortable with it?
7. Think creatively about courses of action – create many options.
8. What does your gut say? – Get a sense of what your instincts tell you to do. Decisions will tell you what the right decision is.

Other Notes

Self-awareness– without an awareness of your own thinking strategies, emotional intelligence, communication abilities, you will not be able to make the changes necessary to affect positive change.

Risk-taking – leaders must encourage risk-taking among the people they lead. They must not point out when errors are made because this will encourage “playing it safe” and hiding mistakes.

 Leadership Development – to develop yourself toward increased leadership, do the following:

• Have a clear goal – know where you want to go and how you want to impact the world.
• Have a clear path forward – evaluate yourself and identify what you need to do to prepare yourself to move forward effectively. Map out how you will do it and get moving!
• Obtain a mentor – find someone you can go to lunch with, someone that you can rely on for guidance. Ideally, this should be someone who has done what you wish to do in your career. Perhaps have several mentors!
• Risk-taking – do scary things and do your best. Take risks, try your best, learn from the experience, and try again! If you never take the leap, you will always remain where you are.

30 seconds of reflection

(In these leadership development meetings, we are always directed to reflect for 30 seconds. This is my reflection). I would like a clear path forward toward the fulfillment of my goals. Much of this includes gaining an objective view of my current abilities so that I can identify how to really change and improve myself. I've realized that I really need to get clear feedback and guidance from the people that I work with so I have a clearer picture of what my strengths and weaknesses are. This will be scary and potentially painful, but it may yield a practical path forward.

Effective Strategies for Making Decisions

We all make decisions. At work, within our families, and in our communities, the decisions we make and the actions we take have a profound impact on our own success and on the success of the organizations in which we work. There are several approaches to decision-making that are promoted in popular literature. But which is the best way to make decisions? In this post I will describe what I see as the three major categories or types of decision-making and will show how these can be used to make good decisions.

As I discussed in a previous post, there are three general approaches to decision-making: (1) systematic process approaches, (2) intuitive approaches, and (3) principle-based approaches.

In instructional design, systematic process approaches include things like the ADDIE Process, The Dick and Carey Model, and other systematic processes for creating instruction. Intuitive approaches are more creative in nature and employ what has been called The Creative Spirit of Design. Principles-based approaches assume that systematic processes produce generalizable results, and that we can base our design on the assumptions embedded in the principles. (I describe instructional principles in detail in this previous post).

Combine these Approaches

I would submit that effective decision-makers intuitively combine each of these approaches in the decisions they make. Thinking systematically enables the individual to use scientific forms of thinking and reasoning, and without this the decision will likely be flawed. For example, when I redesign a course in my work at Franklin University, I often review and analyze data related to that course - student feedback, faculty comments and concerns, the course materials, and trends in the field - so that I can have a sound basis upon which to redesign the course. But in that redesign, I can also rely on principles to guide my work. I assume that applying these research-based instructional principles will produce the optimal learning environment, so I apply them to the course I am redesigning. Finally, in any given course redesign, I find that I must use my intuition and creativity to make some of the decisions that go into the design and development of the course. If there is no clear way to develop an assignment or a piece of multimedia, I do my best to creatively apply what I believe will help students learn effectively.

Previous Post: 6 Principles for Using Data to Make Decisions

Goals and Decisions
To make a good decision, you must have a goal or an outcome. If you know what you want to happen, then you are already on the right track. Sometimes the decision is to simply decide what your goal is. If you can't agree on a goal, then you are probably in trouble.

Context is Crucial
It should be noted that these three decision-making approaches all occur within a specific context. The nation, state, city, organization, college, department, and workspace a person is working in can all significantly influence the decisions being made. A good decision-maker is very aware of these contexts and considers them when applying all three decision-making strategies.

Decisions are Often Not "Right and Wrong"
In making decisions at work and in life, there is often no "right" answer.* There may be literally hundreds of ways to address a problem or work toward a goal, and you eventually have to make a decision and see what happens. But these decisions can be measured and held against a standard of success, and if the decisions (and their actions) lead to the desired result or goal, then it can be held up as a good decision. As a bonus, you can often learn from your experiences adjust your actions and decisions later to move you closer to your goal.

Previous Post: Leadership and Effective Decision Making

Use These Strategies!
I recommend using each of these strategies. The magic, of course, lies in when an individual should use which strategy, and through time an experience, you will develop your own approach. As long as you are thinking systematically, identifying and using principles effectively, and creatively applying your knowledge, you will make effective decisions that will positively impact your life and your work.

*I want to make clear that I am not promoting the notion that there is no right or wrong, or no good or evil. There are some decisions (and their subsequent actions) that I believe are most certainly wrong. I refer here to those decisions which do not have clearly right or wrong paths.

Decision-Making in Instructional Design (and Life)

How Do You Make Decisions?
How do you make your decisions? What do you do before you decide something? This is an important question, because the decisions we make determine our destiny in life. And if we want to enjoy all of the blessings that life has to offer, we must examine how we approach decision-making so that we can improve our decision-making.

In previous posts, I have written about principles for using data to make decisions, as well as leadership and decision-making. In this post, I will continue my discussion on decision-making and will relate it to instructional design and to life.

Decisions can be grouped as lower-level decisions (reactive) and higher-level decisions (proactive). Based on my experience, within these levels are several different approaches, which I describe below.

Lower-level Decision-Making (Reactive)

• Reaction - the decision is based solely on the compulsive nature of the environment. Design changes only occur when the designer is compelled to design.
• Rule-following - the designer uses a checklist approach to design. He does what others have done before him and thinks little.
• Social decision-making - the designer allows social influences to determine the design. This is heavily related to Reaction approach. 

In each of these lower-level decision-making approaches, the designer actually does very little design thinking.

Higher-Level Decision-Making (Proactive)

• Systematic - in this approach, the designer gathers data to support each phase of the design process. This approach is more scientific in nature and relies on critical thinking.
• Principles-based - in this approach, the designer bases decisions on principles of instruction. These principles are formed through their own instructional practice as well as through their exposure to research.
• Intuition - this approach uses the creativity of the designer. The designer creatively applies or ignores systematic or principles-based approaches. 

In my experience, when good design occurs, a lovely combination of all three of these approaches emerges. A good designer knows when to be more systematic and when to use principles instead. A good designer knows how to add his or her creativity to the work, and this creativity is best used when it employs principles in unique, tailored ways.

Use the Higher Levels
We should make our decisions based on the higher levels of decision-making. Very often, these approaches are more difficult, time-consuming, and are sometimes unpopular. With the ever-constant pressure to "get the work done," we are often tempted to revert to the more reactive approaches.

Progression in Decision-Making Approaches
People can progress in their decision-making approaches. We all have a tendency in our youth to employ the reactionary approach. But over time, we can develop the capacity to subdue the reactionary approach and develop disciplined habits. These habits enable use to continue on up the progression until we are creatively combining higher-level approaches to achieve success.

A Note on Habits and Decision-Making
The old axiom states that "excellence is a habit." I extend this by saying that "Design Excellence is achieved through excellent habits." Habits can empower us in our work, or they can drag us down. The lower-level, reactive approaches are easy to form because they are the path of least resistance and require little thinking. The higher-level, proactive approaches are more difficult to form because they are difficult and require lots of thinking and feeling.

Organizations and Decision-making
 It should be noted that these kinds of decision-making approaches are evident in organizations. Have you ever worked in an organization that is totally reactive? That does what it does because that is how it does what it does? That encourages its people to follow the rules, even when it makes absolutely no sense to do so? What about a proactive organization that gathers data to make decisions? That runs based on solid principles and allows its employees to use their creativity to bring about success? Yes, these decision-making approaches certainly apply to organizations.

Designing Life
So, where do you fall in your own decision-making as an instructional designer? What about your decisions in life? Either way, you are designing. You design instruction by making effective decisions. You design your life the same way. And the fundamental truth is that proactive approaches will always yield greater success that reactive.This can apply to organizations, as well.

To Solve the Problem, Ask the Right Question. Again.

 The other day I had an interesting experience as I flew home from the Annual Academic Chairpersons Conference. I was flying with my department chair, Dr. Kody Kuehnl, and we were writing out a list of all of the things that we had learned during the conference. As we talked, we kept asking: What did we learn at this conference that could be useful in our work at Franklin University? It was late at night and we were both tired. There were a few times when it seemed that we had identified everything we could think of, but we kept asking the question. And each time we asked the question, we came up with a new answer, something that was useful and better and could be applied to our work to create positive change.

This reminded me of a lunch meeting I had with a friend who had an instructional design problem. He was struggling with how he might design a piece of instruction for a particular organization, and every time we asked the question, we came up with answers that did not fit the needs of the organization. I have noticed that normally at this point, most people give up and move on to other conversation topics, but we kept asking the same question - how can we design this course so that it meets the needs of the organization? Some time near the end of our lunch meeting, I had an insightful idea that seemed to materialize from an area of my mind that I had not accessed before. It seemed to emerge as an answer to the problem, almost as if the answer came from someone else.It was a solution that solved the problem and allowed my friend to move forward with his design.

Keep Asking the Question
So, what problem do you need to solve? What would you like to create? What answer do you need? Often it is a matter of simply asking the question again and again until the right answer comes. If the answer does not come, keep asking and you will be surprised what your mind teaches you.

Leadership and Effective Decision-Making

I recently attended the 30th Annual Academic Chairpersons Conference. At the conference, I attended a great workshop by Dr. Kent Crookston, a faculty member at Brigham Young University, on decision-making. In his presentation, entitled "Three Keys to Effective Decision-Making," he presented what he called the three key components for decision-making.

• Be Proactive - take responsibility for your own life and for your work.
• Be Humble - demonstrate a "compelling modesty," act with calm determination, and never blame other people or things for poor results.
•  Be Composed - even under stress, it is vital that we control our fight or flight responses and deal with issues and problems in a composed manner.

Really this is a principle-centered approach for making decisions.

Previous Post: 6 Principles for Using Data to Make Decisions

Popular Decision-Making
Dr. Crookston also presented two popular forms of decision-making, which appear to be popular in the literature. First, he presented what I call the scientific or process-oriented approach to decision-making. With this approach, the decision-maker follows a 9-step process in which several activities are employed, including:

1. Identify the decision-maker
2. Clarify what is to be decided
3. Consider other stakeholders
4. Gather and analyze data, facts, and information
5. Consider options
6. Determine objectives and rank them
7. Identify the option that best meets the objectives
8. Say yes to the selected option and mourn the loss of the others
9. Implement your decision

This approach makes a lot of sense and likely yields great returns. One issue, though, is that this process can take some time to work through, and often there is a limited amount of time available to follow the process.

The second is what I call the "intuitive" approach to decision-making. This is really the gut-reaction approach and operates under the assumption that the process approach is rarely used in the real world because takes too long to follow the process.

The Decision-making Continuum
It seems that these two approaches are presented as a dichotomy - two distinct and entirely different approaches. However, I believe that there is a continuum between these two approaches to decision-making. It is probably somewhat rare to follow the "scientific" approach in its entirety; however, an individual or group may use some of the general steps identified above and therefore would find themselves between a purely scientific approach and a more intuitive approach.The more data we gather and analyze, the more scientific our approach. The less data we have gathered, the more intuitive the approach. I would assert that in every decision, at least some of the steps in the process are followed, and the individual has some sort of an intuitive sense of what the best decision is; therefore, the idea for a continuum holds.

My Synthesis of These Approaches
 In reality, all three of these approaches can (and likely should) be used simultaneously. The scientific provides a framework and a sequence for making decisions in a methodical manner. The intuitive allows the individual to remain true to their intuitive sense. And Crookston's approach enables the individual to stay centered on principles that facilitate the successful application of both the scientific and the intuitive.

To make an effective decision, a leader must use each one of these strategies. If the "scientific" process approach is not used, then there is no critical thinking and the decision will likely be flawed.  If the intuitive approach is not used, then the decision may not resonate with the needs and desires of the one making the decision. And if Crookston's principles are ignored, then unhealthy behaviors and attitudes will short-circuit and cloud the decision, thus compromising the effectiveness of the decision.

To these three decision-making strategies, I would also add a sub-component: technology. This can include any tool or technique that makes a decision-making task more efficient or effective. Technologies include any tool or model that facilitates steps in the decision-making process. The image below summarizes these four components of effective decision-making.

Components of Effective Decision-Making

The Important of Context

The context in which decisions are made plays a crucial role on how these components are utilized by the decision-maker. For example, if there is little access to needed technologies, then the decision-making is altered; if there is very little time to make decisions, then the decision will likely land closer to intuition on the decision-making continuum. In an ideal world, all four of these components should be utilized to their fullest to ensure that decisions yield the most favorable results.